Ending Curriculum Violence and Academic Ancestral Worship: An Afrocentric Perspective on Decolonising Higher Education in Africa

There have been multiple contributions to the decolonisation agenda in Africa since the onset of calls to decolonise education under the auspices of the #RhodesMustFall protests in South Africa. Nevertheless, these efforts have not resulted in the realisation of a truly decolonised higher education. The present study was built on the premise that decolonising higher education requires a deep analysis of how the perpetuation of academic ancestral worship has been used to maintain the dominance of Western epistemologies at the expense of indigenous peoples. Although closely related, this study conceptualised curriculum violence as how the curriculum reinforces imbalances in knowledge production systems while academic ancestral worship is understood as the veneration of Western academic traditions and scholarships over indigenous knowledge and scholars. To effectively argue for an Afrocentric position on ending these pervasive forms of colonialism in education, the researchers used a literature review methodology, which entailed meticulously searching for published literature using keywords. The study's findings highlight the need to commit to social justice and equity to liberate and transform higher education in Africa using a model that advocates for Afrocentric knowledge creation, validation, and dissemination. This study also raises awareness of curriculum violence and academic ancestral worship. It further increases understanding of their impact on marginalised communities to inform policy and decision-making in educational institutions and lead to the implementation of more inclusive and equitable curricula and practices.


INTRODUCTION
Globally, the decolonisation movement in higher education emerged in response to deep-rooted historical and colonial legacies that have been sustained over time. 1 The movement gained significant momentum in South Africa with the #RhodesMustFall protests that began in 2015 at the University of Cape Town. 2 These protests were a student-led movement in South Africa calling for the removal of the statue of Cecil John Rhodes, which they viewed as a symbol of oppressive historical legacies in higher education institutions. 3The #RhodesMustFall protests ignited a broader conversation about decolonising education and challenging the dominant Western narratives perpetuating colonial ideologies at the expense of African indigenous knowledge systems. 4The movement highlighted the need to fundamentally transform higher education curricula, pedagogies, and institutional structures. 5The protests called for a decolonisation agenda to challenge the hegemony of Western epistemologies and knowledge production. 6Activists demanded a more inclusive curriculum that acknowledged and valued African knowledge systems, cultures, and histories. 7They also advocated for increased recruitment of diverse faculty members and support for African academics to foster a more representative and equitable learning environment. 8he #RhodesMustFall protests were not limited to South Africa; they resonated with similar global movements and struggles beyond the shores of the African continent. 9These protests created a platform for critical discussions on the colonial legacy, systemic inequalities, and the need for decolonisation in various spheres of society. 10According to Nyamnjoh, the #RhodesMustFall protests catalysed the decolonisation movement in higher education and formed an integral part of a larger historical struggle for social justice and equality. 11The movement drew on the legacy of African struggles and liberation movements that fought against colonial oppression and sought to restore dignity, sovereignty, and self-determination to marginalised communities. 12In a nutshell, Ndlovu-Gatsheni concludes that the emergence of the decolonisation movement in higher education signified a broader call to challenge and dismantle the entrenched colonial structures and knowledge systems and to create inclusive, equitable, and culturally responsive educational environments. 13espite the positive advancement in the decolonisation agenda in South African universities, several challenges and limitations persist in achieving a truly decolonised system.A significant hurdle is the prevalence of a Eurocentric curriculum, which heavily favours Western epistemologies and perspectives while neglecting and marginalising indigenous knowledge systems, histories, and cultures. 14One can reflect on how language barriers significantly challenge decolonisation efforts in South Africa.Although predominantly a second language to the majority, English still dominates as the primary language of instruction in South African higher education.This sidelines African languages and the wealth of cultural and historical knowledge they carry. 15his exclusion or undervaluation of African languages hampers meaningful inclusion and recognition of indigenous knowledge and scholarship.Unfortunately, knowledge production and dissemination systems in African higher education are primarily influenced by Western standards and methodologies, presenting another obstacle. 16As a result, African ways of knowing and knowledge creation, rooted in oral traditions, experiential learning, and community practices, often receive limited value and recognition. 17This perpetuates unequal power dynamics between Western epistemologies and African knowledge systems.
Globally, studies have revealed that the underrepresentation of indigenous scholars and faculty members in high-profile managerial positions further hinders decolonisation efforts. 18According to Kidman, the limited presence of indigenous voices and perspectives in higher education institutions reinforces the marginalisation of African knowledge. 19This is because while indigenous scholars are a welcomed addition to the academe, these scholars are usually by-products of the dominant Western paradigms, thus making it difficult for some to confront colonial remnants.In essence, indigeneity does not automatically equate to affirmation of the decolonial agenda.As a result, African communities' experiences, knowledge, and epistemologies are often overlooked at best and disregarded at worst. 20This is worsened by institutional resistance to the decolonisation agenda where some academic and administrative staff have been known to resist change by unequivocally adhering to traditional Western-centric norms and standards. 21Studies have shown that institutional structures and policies perpetuating Western dominance hinder efforts to decolonise curricula and create inclusive learning environments. 22In addition, the lack of sufficient funding and resources for decolonisation initiatives poses a significant limitation because meaningful transformation requires financial investment in research, curriculum development, training, and support for scholars and students engaged in decolonisation work. 23Insufficient financial resources can impede the implementation of comprehensive and sustainable changes. 24The broader socio-political context, including historical inequalities, socioeconomic disparities, and power dynamics, also challenges decolonisation in higher education.While there have been studies on decolonisation efforts in higher education, few have focused on implementing an indigenous framework that addresses curriculum violence and the perpetuation of academic ancestral worship. 25The present study, therefore, sought to employ an Afrocentric lens to end curriculum violence and academic ancestral worship in Africa.

LITERATURE REVIEW The Concept of Academic Ancestral Worship
An endeavour like the present one is not straightforward because of the gaping dearth of literature on academic ancestral worship.A simple search for the term 'academic ancestral worship' and all its derivatives reveals that this concept has not been adequately problematised in extant literature.The first instance uncovered was in Jackson, who used the term to praise Leopold von Ranke's historical collection of books that were receiving widespread adoration. 26The second appearance of the term is found in the work of Togo, who used the term to describe groups of scholars who were ardent followers of Professor Yabuuti Kiyosi's contribution to the history of Chinese science. 27The next instance is found in Painter, who deploys the term to celebrate the legacy of Peter Self, a political science discipline boundary-spanner. 28Finally, Evans employs the term academic ancestral worship in the adoration of the works of experts in Celtic languages and cultures. 29What is clear from these works is that generally, the term academic ancestral worship has been deployed in a positive light as a somewhat enviable undertaking, yet strikingly, African perspectives are absent from all the preceding contexts.To achieve an Africanised definition of the same, the researchers will begin by conceptualising 'ancestral worship' in the context of indigenous African religions and, from there, derive a working definition of what they refer to as academic ancestral worship.
Unsurprisingly, the earliest Western publishers on African religions saw indigenous religions as religions of Africa's uncivilised peoples, which conflicted with the adoption of Islam and Christianity. 30From a very Western perspective, Dudley Kidd sought to define African peoples and their customs by arguing, "We find the natives associating the spirits of their ancestors with some special animal…ancestors do not live in the actual individual snakes but in the genus… When men are alive, they love to be praised and flattered, fed, and attended to; after death, they want the very same things, for death does not change personality… The most important part of the whole matter seems to be the praising of the ancestral spirit". 31e authors of the present manuscript deliberately refer to Kidd and Addison due to their representation of Western perspectives prevailing at the time of colonisation concerning African peoples and ways of life. 32he present study utilises the same lenses to articulate an Afrocentric meaning of 'academic ancestral worship' in the Western-dominated post-colonial present in which African scholarship is intricately bound.In the authors' considered Afrocentric view, academic ancestral worship means, if the definition above by Kidd is anything to go by, the perpetuation of the Western genus that seeks to (whether deliberately or by happenstance) be the centre of discourse long after its time has passed. 33Even the demise of colonialism did not signal a commensurate death of the veneration of Western ways in Africa.In academia, this tends to manifest as the prioritisation of Western theories and ways of knowing that are alien to Africa and have no bearing whatsoever on the condition of Africa.The authors conceptualise academic ancestral worship as the tendency to venerate Western academic traditions and scholarship at the expense of indigenous peoples' pieces of knowledge.The phenomenon of academic ancestral worship thus signifies the elevation and reverence given to Western intellectual traditions, theories, and methodologies, often at the expense of indigenous knowledge systems and the scholars who embody them.Predictably, this bias perpetuates a hierarchical power structure in academia that marginalises indigenous knowledge and reinforces coloniality.

The Concept of Curriculum Violence
Curriculum violence refers to the manipulation (intentional and unintentional) of academic programming in a way that disregards or undermines students' intellectual and psychological well-being. 34This concept highlights education's detrimental effects that perpetuate inequality, reinforce stereotypes, and marginalise others. 35While curriculum violence can occur globally in various contexts, it is essential to understand its specific manifestations and significance in Africa.In the case of an Africa that is seemingly wrestling with the proverbial ghosts of colonialism, curriculum violence would constitute, among other things, academic programming that disregards indigenous students' cultures, histories, languages, and ways of knowing. 36This undermines African intellectual contributions and fosters a sense of intellectual dependency among African students.Historically, African educational systems have often been influenced by colonial legacies prioritising Western knowledge and marginalising indigenous knowledge and perspectives. 37This Western bias has resulted in the erasure, devaluation, and, at times, misrepresentation of African histories and ways of knowing.When marginalised students are denied the opportunity to be educated in a way that honours their cultural heritage and histories, it leads to a deep sense of alienation, low self-esteem, and a bastardisation of their identities. 38nother form of curriculum violence is the perpetuation of stereotypes and biases.Educational materials and practices that reinforce racial, gender, ethnic, or socioeconomic stereotypes also contribute to the marginalisation and stigmatisation of formerly colonised and oppressed peoples. 39For example, if textbooks depict certain ethnic groups as inferior, it perpetuates harmful stereotypes and limits learners' understanding of diverse experiences and perspectives.Curriculum violence also occurs through a lack of inclusivity and relevance in the curriculum. 40When educational materials do not reflect the experiences and realities of African students, it creates a disconnection between what is taught and students' lived experiences. 41Such a dissonance can result in disengagement, disinterest, and a diminished sense of self-worth in the victim of this rabid form of violence.The curriculum must address the needs, aspirations, and challenges faced by African learners to promote their intellectual and psychological well-being.

Transgressive Learning as a Framework for the Decolonisation Agenda
This article submits that breaking away from ancestral worship and its inherent curriculum violence is not an easy thing, for it needs critical thinking, unlearning certain things, reimagining new ways of doing things and relearning new ways of seeing the world that has been taken for granted.To achieve this, academia willing to break away from ancestral worship and commit to the decolonisation agenda is needed.In this regard, the researchers borrow Lotz-Sisitka et al.'s transgressive learning as a framework for the decolonisation agenda. 42n their view, transgressive learning is a form of transformative learning that deliberately transgresses conventional practice and explicitly challenges the hegemony embedded in the current Eurocentric research methodologies, practices, and traditions.This article conceptualises transgressive learning as radical transformative learning that deconstructs coloniality by confronting the hegemonic elements embedded in the Eurocentric education system.It is hoped that a transgressive learning framework offers expansive learning opportunities for it deliberately challenges and transgresses the conventional epistemic norms.In this way, it offers opportunities to forge new ways of thinking, doing things, and viewing the world differently.
Lotz-Sistika et al. recommended that to achieve this, higher education needs transgressive pedagogies that are disruptive to the colonial order. 43Such pedagogies are not constrained or restricted by the taken-forgranted Eurocentric practices and traditions that do not recognise other ways of knowing and are, therefore, maladaptive to the changing world order.Such an approach, as Thambinathan and Kinsella point out, would require an uncompromisingly radical approach to higher education that challenges both the colonial and neocolonial ritualistic changes that are being done in some higher education institutions which will be described as transformation to remain the same. 44The present study concurs with Tuck and Yang, who contend that decolonisation is not a complementary project but a disruptive and chaotic one that seeks to unsettle and challenge the status quo. 45In Thambinathan and Kinsella's words, "it is not merely a strategy of inclusion or an 'and', but instead an 'elsewhere' for knowledge production and the imagination." 46Their point is that if the decolonisation and transformation of the higher education agenda are to be successful, academia has to learn to look elsewhere for knowledge.
The preceding arguments resonate with Keane, Khupe and Seehawer and Seehawer, who bemoan the paradox of using the same colonial lenses to criticise colonial education. 47Theirs is a cry for appropriate conceptual tools to deconstruct the stubborn legacies of colonialism embedded in the education system.They note with concern that a lack of appropriate lenses constrains the current efforts to decolonise education in Africa.In support, this article argues that decolonising higher education requires a deviation from the norms and transgression of inappropriate epistemologies to generate new ones.

METHODOLOGY
Of the several literature review typologies available to carry out research of this kind, the researchers adopted a perspective-driven critical review of literature as described by Grant and Booth. 48According to the seminal work of Cooper, perspective-driven reviewers can assume one of two roles: (i) neutral representation or (ii) espousal of a position. 49In neutral representation, Cooper argues that reviewers attempt to ensure that all sides are represented by assuming an impartial position. 50In the present study, the researchers were convinced that such a role would engender Western perspectives that have long been published at the expense of indigenous peoples.The researchers thus adopted the second roleespousal of a position because this role was more suited to the task at hand.The espousal of a position is all about "accumulating and synthesising the literature in the service of demonstrating the value of a particular point of view.As such, the reviewer may selectively ignore or limit the attention paid to certain information in order to make a point." 51This position meant a deliberate positioning of the researchers as advocates of the vanquished and perpetually undermined peoples of Africapeoples whose traditions and ways of knowing have been deliberately and systematically rubbished as inferior. 52s indigenous African researchersresearchers who have first-hand lived experiences of indigeneity, there was a conviction that a neutral representation of literature would fail dismally in the quest to advocate for an Afrocentric view of dismantling curriculum violence and academic ancestral worship.Thus, a selective search for Afrocentric books, chapters, and peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings on the decolonisation agenda was conducted, opting to prioritise relevance instead of time-sensitive searches on Google Scholar.

Configurations of Academia Requiring Urgent Dispossession and Exorcism
To ensure that African universities do not perpetually transform to remain the same in relation to the decolonisation agenda, it is imperative to rethink how universities are organised.The current configuration does not reflect the political will and African energies on the ground calling for a truly decolonised higher education.This section explores some of the fundamental ways in which colonial standards are venerated in a way that is so violent to African peoples.The researchers interact with these aspects by cross-referencing them to Western understandings of ancestral worship.

The Language of the Shrine
A prominent feature of 'ancestral worship' is the sanctimonious respect for indigenous languages in rites of worshipin fact, to digress from the official language used in rites of worship is a frowned-upon sacrilege.Sadly, higher education systems in Africa operate as shrines where Western values and languages are esteemed higher than indigenous languages.This hegemony of Western languages is a classic case of academic ancestral worship in African universities.Unsurprisingly, the efforts to decolonise have been looked at with subtle manifestations of suspicion and contempt, often hoodwinked by the excuse of 'exorbitant' costs of resource production and the 'noble' pursuit of internationalisation. 53 Drawing from Hammine and Hudley, Mallinson, and Bucholtz, it becomes clear that any sober attempt to decolonise must begin by addressing the language dilemma allowed to persist unchallenged for so long. 54Academia in Africa is desperate for urgent decolonising, especially concerning the language of instruction because the current academic landscape in Africa presents systems of higher education that unthinkingly follow Western language traditions with little to no regard for indigenous language contexts and the benefits that can be obtained from them.Very little has changed since the study by Alidou, who argued that despite the fall of colonialism in Africa, most universities on the continent insisted on the use of colonial languages (for example, English is still dominant in former Anglophone colonies, French in former Francophone colonies, and Portuguese in Lusophone colonies). 55Although evidence suggests numerous benefits of home languages in learning, most African universities fixate on this naive loyalty to Western languages. 56The paradox here is that in Western countries, home languages are so much prioritised that even minorities benefit from practices like code-switching while in Africa, Western languages are held in high esteem regardless of the cost to students. 57The researchers consider that dismantling academic ancestral worship and decolonisation requires discomfort to confront and address imperialism's continuing effects in the present higher education system.

The Etiquette of the Shrine
As with all places of worship, there are etiquettes and conducts expected at shrines of worship.In the context of universities, there seems to be an unending veneration of systems and ways of knowing that have gone beyond their proverbial 'sell-by date'.This is especially well-captured in the work of Kidd, who saw ancestors as men with an insatiable appetite for praise, even beyond their deaths. 58While inaccurate and unsubstantiated, the researchers find the work of Kidd to be very accurate in describing the state in which African universities find themselves.Western ways of education persistently get praised and venerated in aspects such as university rankings, thesis examination, university reputation, journal ranking systems, and several other such aspects. 59It is astounding that university rankings remain an influential metric in determining the quality of higher education, regardless of how the system is rooted in (and actively promotes) colonial legacies. 60While seemingly objective, these rankings have long been criticised for reinforcing colonial legacies, perpetuating global inequality, marginalisation, and replicating Western-centric knowledge structures. 61One only needs to consider how these rankings are predominantly dominated by institutions from Europe and North America, consistently in the top positions. 62As a result, university rankings reinforce the idea that Western education is superior and the only legitimate standard of academic excellence, marginalising knowledge systems from other cultures.According to Achugbue and Tella, Fauzi et al. and Ndofirepi, the methodologies used to compile university rankings often favour institutions that align with Western norms, philosophies, and research agendas. 63cademic ancestral worship is similarly prominent in the journal ranking systems and the determination of 'quality' publications.Just as the West dominates university rankings, they also dominate high-impact journals, and African publishers are the perennial sickling of the publishing industry. 64African publishers are often looked at with suspicion, especially concerning the quality of peer review.Thus, even on matters that pertain to Africa, European and North American publishers are often deemed more reliable.This begs the moral question, 'Who has the authority to produce, assess, and disseminate African knowledge?'The etiquette of ancestral worship also becomes apparent when one considers how regulators, such as the Department of Higher Education and Training in South Africa, glorify and venerate Western knowledge systems by accrediting Western journals and discrediting African journals as 'predator publishers'.Would the natural predator not be the one that comes from a different jurisdiction to invade and gobble scholarship for the benefit of their insatiable appetite?Such biases disregard non-Western publishers' rich contributions and scholarship and engender a colonial mindset where Western knowledge is presented as superior.The resultant gap often means that indigenous pieces of knowledge and non-Western epistemologies are often sidelined or dismissed, reinforcing the exclusion of indigenous communities. 65This etiquette of academic ancestral worship at African universities perpetuates the notion that Western benchmarks are universally applicable, undermining the importance of localised solutions and reinforcing the colonial tendency to impose Western standards on non-Western societies.
The Posture at the Shrine Worshippers at shrines usually express postures of worship such as raising hands, chanting, singing, dancing, and prostrationall of which are meant to outwardly express an inward reality of reverence to a supreme being.Using the same analogy, it is imperative to note that processes and ways of academia at African universities appear to be steeped in similar blind allegiances to Western traditions in a way that glorifies North America and Europe as if they are supreme and infallible.One can draw on how teaching and learning resources in most African universities blindly venerate Westernness while affording local pieces of knowledge and intelligence mere ritualistic attention. 66In reading the works of Dawson and Olusanya, Mallewa and Ogbo, one gets the impression that universities in Africa reinforce Western dominance by not actively challenging the status quo. 67t is imperative to note that university libraries are still pregnant with literature that, at best, can be termed relics of the obsolete colonial past. 68Even the journals subscribed to by institutions uphold this colonial legacy by being exclusionary to African systems of knowledge production and the ethics thereof, 69 and the reviewers of knowledge are predominantly trained the Western way. 70Yet the student in such institutions is expected to somehow champion the decolonial agenda.
In addition, the research foci in some African universities also require considerable attention if the decolonial agenda is to succeed.It would appear that research areas at African universities are almost always a reaction to global trends as led by Western institutions and funding agencies.The prioritisation of Western research foci areas continually yokes Africans to depend on Western epistemologies that devalue indigenous knowledge and reproduce colonial hierarchies. 71According to Dawson, this blinded bias is anchored in the reality that universities are founded on and endorse Western epistemologies at the expense of non-Western ones. 72This dehumanising violence against indigenous peoples is also evident in the privileges of the West at the expense of the South in a way that Venugopal refers to as a form of global neo-colonialism. 73One can also consider how the assessment of research degrees and doctoral theses in most African universities involves policy-enabled mandatory scrutiny by Western academics in a manner that appears to point to the West as the standard against which knowledge is evaluated. 74This constitutes academic ancestral worship, especially when one considers how standards, although initially meant to provide rigorous feedback, have the undertones of perpetuating the 'Western genus of academia' that seeks to be the centre of discourse beyond its expiration.In some very unfortunate instances, those subjected to this practice end up being forced to interpret their work through Eurocentric lenses that the examiner will prescribethis must never be left unchallenged. 75e Unexplainable at the Shrine: Of Spirits and Spiritism Spiritism, rewards, and punishments are inherent characteristics of religious shrines.The researchers use 'spiritism' to refer to the third force that compels worshippers at a shrine to act as if hypnotised.In other words, spiritism is the unexplainable third force that compels participants to comply with the rules, procedures, rituals, and traditions of the shrine without questioning them.This article draws similarities between the spiritism of religious shrines and how universities, especially in Africa, operate as shrines of academic ancestral worshipping where scholars are whipped into compliance with templated Western traditions, rituals, norms, values, and standards, thereby excluding and preventing other ways of thinking, knowing and being.In his critique, Dawson noted that African universities are sites that perpetuate coloniality by producing and validating knowledge informed by North American and Eurocentric philosophies and are often biased against the colonised people's bits of knowledge. 76To add to this, the researchers argue that instead of promoting critical thinking, upcoming researchers in African universities are often schooled into dogmatic religious compliance, which disempowers them to challenge the hegemony of Western knowledge systems.By the time they graduate and start their academic careers, they have already been stripped of their epistemic freedom. 77This corroborates Alfonso-Nhalevilo's argument that the African school system continues to play its colonial role of suppressing other ways of knowing and perpetuating Western epistemic hegemony. 78Thus, many African researchers are accomplices to coloniality for failing to challenge the very theories informing their studies and practice.
In other words, the debate about decolonising higher education should go deeper and focus on what Ndlovu-Gatsheni described as the right to cognitive justice or epistemic freedom. 79He defined epistemic freedom as the "right to think, theorise, interpret the world, and develop their methodologies and write from where one is located and unencumbered by Eurocentrism." 80The point that Ndlovu-Gatsheni makes here is that academic freedom without epistemic or cognitive justice is inadequate.In other words, academic freedom is limited to demanding the right to diverse ideas, whereas epistemic freedom goes deeper to demand cognitive justice, which focuses on the need to rethink and deconstruct the colonial thought systems that African universities inherited.The authors contend that to achieve this, African researchers must first exorcise the academic shrines from the spiritism that compels them to blindly follow Eurocentric thoughts and standards without questioning them.In the researchers' considered view, it is this spiritism that is currently inhibiting progressive thinking.The researchers view spiritism as the university's hidden curriculum that silently transmits the message that African knowledge is inferior, African journals are predator journals, Africa cannot produce quality knowledge, African scholars are inferior, and Africa cannot develop its theories, among many other anti-Africa messages. 81Bombarded by these messages in their research careers, the African scholars are silently converted and baptised into total allegiance and become bona fide servants of the colonial system that chained their people and force-marched them out of their freedoms, which they lost forever.

The Rewards and Punishment System of the Shrine
It is essential to note that the current configuration of higher education in Africa, which is highly dependent on Western epistemologies, traditions, values, and ethics, does not support transformation.Hodson is quick to caution that "you cannot attack a people's knowledge without offending the knower, for the knower and their knowledge are intricately bound." 82Thus, the epistemic struggle of Africa is politically charged, for it will disrupt not only the knowledge systems in African universities but also the political structures that support them. 83As a result, epistemic decolonisation is not an uneasy discourse in a continent whose activities are still heavily dependent on the will of the colonial masters.In essence, de-Westernising African universities is a risky endeavour which usually attracts resistance from the beneficiaries of the status quo.In some cases, especially in former Whites-only universities, one has to carefully consider how engaging in decolonial research will affect their employment.When truly implemented, the decolonial agenda may even threaten the funding of the institutions as some institutions are still heavily dependent on external funding from Europe, America, or Asia.Thus, any academic who dares challenge the status quo will likely be chastised into compliance while those who comply are celebrated as good researchers.Moreover, through the many years they spent in training and working with the Eurocentric epistemologies, many African academics have developed a blind allegiance to Eurocentric paradigms, which makes it difficult to critique them.As a result, it takes radical thinking for one to escape this trap.On the other hand, the university systems have structures that monitor compliance with international standards.Ndlovu-Gatsheni notes that it is through these structures that researchers are whipped into line. 84While research ethics are fundamental in ensuring fair practice and preventing the violation of research participants, they continue to silence other pieces of knowledge and ways of being by expressing the monocultural Eurocentric interpretation of ethical behaviour as universal standards that every researcher should comply with. 85By delimiting what ought to be viewed as acceptable research ethics, Eurocentric research ethics impose European values as the universal standards that should guide human behaviour in research, thereby suppressing other ways of knowing and being.

A Way Forward: Towards the African Pluraversity
Having established the various factors hampering the quest for decolonised higher education in Africa, this section proposes a way out of the present conundrum of academic ancestral worship in African universities.Three cardinal questions shape the decolonisation agenda for institutions genuinely courting transformation: How is 'knowledge' created?How is 'knowledge' validated?and How is 'knowledge' disseminated?The researchers consider that genuine decolonisation happens only when these three questions are answered in a manner that puts Africa and her people at the centre.As such, any attempt that does not merge these three questions will not deliver decolonised higher education, as the following subsections will demonstrate.This is exemplified by Ndlovu-Gatsheni, who argues for rethinking the decolonial trajectory to awaken African researchers to the reality that African audiences are African researchers' prime targets. 86Below is Figure 1, depicting an Afrocentric perspective of challenging academic ancestral worship in African universities.

Figure 1: Authors' model for challenging academic ancestral worship
Figure 1 above reveals that the interaction of 'Knowledge creation', 'Knowledge validation', and 'Knowledge dissemination' produces four possible outcomes for African higher education, three of which are inadequate in the decolonisation agenda.The following subsections will explore the importance of each intersection and demonstrate why institutions not in charge of all three knowledge states will never truly be decolonised.

Outcome 1: Knowledge creation and validation without
African universities must create and validate their multifaceted knowledge rooted in their unique capacity to offer context-specific solutions and drive self-reliant development.This approach fosters cultural resonance and ownership and empowers these institutions to actively engage in global intellectual discourse, thus enriching the global knowledge landscape.Through tailoring knowledge to local contexts, African universities can effectively address region-specific challenges that external sources of knowledge may overlook.This localised knowledge creation imbues a sense of ownership as it reflects the experiences, concerns, and aspirations of the local population. 87However, a critical aspect to consider in this outcome is the danger posed by surrendering control of knowledge dissemination to external sources that do not seek to put Africa at the centre.This jeopardises their contributions' accuracy, credibility, and applicability, potentially leading to solutions disconnected from the actual challenges. 88Such an overreliance on external players perpetuates a cycle of dependency, inhibiting the development of local expertise and the growth of intellectual autonomy.The lack of representation from diverse geographical and cultural contexts hampers the richness of the global intellectual dialogue, limiting the scope for cross-cultural collaboration and holistic problem-solving. 89This can perpetuate the dominance of Western narratives that may not adequately address the nuances of African regions and cultures. 86

Knowledge dissemination Knowledge validation
Outcome 2: Knowledge Creation and Dissemination without Validation Within the decolonisation agenda, it is paramount for African universities to embark on autonomous knowledge creation and dissemination tailored to the intricate tapestry of local challenges and cultural nuances.By generating knowledge firmly rooted in their unique context, these institutions can proactively address issues often sidelined by external narratives.This initiative fosters a sense of ownership, cultural relevance, and an assertive role in the global intellectual discourse, thus reinforcing the decolonisation movement and contributing to sustainable development. 90However, surrendering control over knowledge validation within this framework bears inherent risks.Entrusting external validation processes exposes African universities to potential misinterpretation, misrepresentation, and distortion of their distinct insights.This might perpetuate an inherited narrative that sidelines indigenous perspectives, undermining the credibility and contextual applicability of the knowledge produced. 91Furthermore, this vulnerability can exacerbate the dependency syndrome on foreign institutions, undermining the growth of independent intellectual paradigms and hindering the emergence of region-specific expertise. 92In ceding validation authority, African universities may inadvertently perpetuate a cycle where local pieces of knowledge remain subservient to externally endorsed ideas, contradicting the very essence of the decolonisation movement.

Outcome 3: Knowledge Dissemination and Validation without Creation
Within the framework of the decolonisation agenda, the imperative for African universities to disseminate and validate their knowledge is significantly profound.This endeavour represents a pivotal step towards reclaiming intellectual sovereignty and rectifying historical injustices ingrained in the global knowledge ecosystem.Through disseminating knowledge, these institutions can effectively address region-specific challenges, champion local narratives, and counteract the historical biases perpetuated by colonial influences. 93This act empowers them to become active contributors to the global discourse, reinforces their cultural relevance, and amplifies their influence on shaping a more equitable and inclusive representation of Africa.However, the risk of not assuming control over knowledge creation within this decolonisation context is considerable.Outsourcing the creation of knowledge about Africa to external sources can perpetuate distorted perceptions, perpetuate Eurocentric biases, and sidestep the nuanced realities of the continent. 94This undermines the authenticity of local perspectives and perpetuates a dependency cycle that hinders the emergence of indigenous solutions and stifles the development of autonomous intellectual frameworks.

Outcome 4: An Intersection of Knowledge Creation, Validation, and Dissemination
The inadequacies of the previous three outcomes lead to the conclusion that decolonising higher education in Africa demands a comprehensive approach encompassing knowledge creation, validation, and dissemination, with Africa and its diverse societies firmly at the core.This integrated model is indispensable as it addresses the multifaceted challenges of colonial legacies, fosters a genuine shift in power dynamics, and ensures that Africa's perspectives and narratives take precedence.The researchers are of the view that the integration of knowledge creation, validation, and dissemination ensures that genuine decolonisation is achieved.When all three aspects are delivered in a manner that places Africa and her people at the centre, it dismantles the asymmetrical power structures that have perpetuated colonial imbalances.This article opines that this comprehensive approach empowers African universities to participate actively in the global academic arena while safeguarding cultural authenticity.It acknowledges the agency of African scholars to shape the trajectory of their disciplines, challenge inherited norms, and lead in the production of knowledge that resonates with their contexts.
Knowledge creation that entails the development of insights rooted in Africa's cultural, social, and historical contexts forms the basis of decolonisation. 95True decolonisation requires generating knowledge that acknowledges the roles of African thinkers, scholars, and traditions, countering the historical dominance of Western epistemologies that have influenced academic curricula and research agendas.As argued by Matsiliza, African scholars' involvement in knowledge creation has the potential to bridge the gap between global scholarship and indigenous wisdom, yielding inherently African perspectives. 96Validating knowledge entailing recognition of local experiences, struggles, and contributions within the African context is pivotal for the decolonisation process.When African universities possess the authority to validate their knowledge, it reinforces the legitimacy of their insights, enhancing the credibility of African scholarship within and beyond the continent. 97This shift is critical to ensure that knowledge assessment is not moulded by external biases but rather by understanding Africa's unique realities.Dissemination serves as the conduit for decolonised knowledge to reach wider audiences.African universities must actively shape how their knowledge is shared globally.Authentic decolonisation involves departing from the historical pattern of knowledge dissemination, often presenting indigenous peoples with a distorted view. 98By controlling the dissemination process, African institutions can ensure accurate portrayal and contextualisation of their perspectives.This empowers them to challenge stereotypes, dispel misconceptions, and contribute to the global discourse in a way that reflects the richness and complexity of African societies.

CONCLUSION
The time has come for African academia to take charge and challenge the undermining of Africaher traditions, ways of knowing, values, ethics, standards, and diverse peoplesto benefit Western ones.This study explored the possibilities of employing an Afrocentric lens to dismantle the hideous academic ancestral worship and epistemic violence in African universities.The paper revealed areas that need urgent decolonisation if Africa is to be treated as an equal in the global academic landscape, and from there, the authors proposed a model for decolonising higher education by targeting to create, validate, and disseminate African knowledge in Africasensitive ways.The study invites like-minded African academics to actively seek localised strategies for creating, validating, and disseminating their bits of knowledge.Finally, the authors believe academic ancestral worship will not disappear magically because it benefits the Western hegemony in higher education.Instead, it is the duty of the African academic and their allies to demonstrate, at every given instance, that Africa is an equal, and African pieces of knowledge are equally significant in the quest for sustainable global development.
Sive Makeleni is the Head of the School of General and Continuing Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Fort Hare.His principal research area is Language Education, and he revolves around themes that emerge from this research area.Dr Makeleni has published several journal articles and book chapters and has attended high-profile conferences at both local and international levels where he has advocated for Language Education.His current project is on preserving indigeneity and the languageness of African languages.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, "The Dynamics of Epistemological Decolonisation in the 21st Century: Towards Epistemic Freedom." 87Hao Zhang and Hajime Nakagawa, "Validation of Indigenous Knowledge for Disaster Resilience against River Flooding and Bank Erosion," in Science and Technology in Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia (Elsevier, 2018), 57-76. 88Philip G Altbach, "Empires of Knowledge and Development," World Class Worldwide: Transforming Research Universities in Asia and Latin America, 2007, 1-28; Lo, "Soft Power, University Rankings and Knowledge Production: Distinctions between Hegemony and Self-determination in Higher Education." 89Leandro Rodriguez Medina, Centers and Peripheries in Knowledge Production (Routledge, 2013).