Deconstructing Traditional Bullying, Cyberbullying and Psychological Distress among LGBT and Heterosexual Adolescents in South Africa

Bullying and psychological distress among adolescents are considered serious social and public health concerns. Several research works concerning psychological distress among adolescents as a result of bullying experiences have been conducted but not many studies explore the differences in the bullying experiences of LGBT adolescents and their heterosexual counterparts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the comparative analyses of traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and psychological distress among heterosexual and LGBT adolescents in South Africa. The study adopted an ex-post-facto research design. A total of 140 respondents (73.6% self-identified as heterosexual and 26.4% as LGBT adolescents) who are students, were engaged using purposive random sampling. Participants completed the bullying victimisation components (B1 for the traditional bullying scale and B2 for cyberbullying scale) and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10), which measures psychological distress among the study participants. Findings revealed that sexual orientations and gender identities do not significantly influence traditional-bullying victimisation among adolescents (t = 0.065, df = 138, p > .05). However, further analysis revealed that LGBT adolescents (ẋ=53.44; SD=05.03) reported higher experiences of cyberbullying, compared to their heterosexual counterparts (ẋ=45.84; SD=06.57). Consequently, LGBT adolescents (ẋ=30.28; SD=0.75) reported higher experiences of psychological distress because of cyberbullying victimisation, compared to their heterosexual counterparts (ẋ=24.87; SD=03.15). It is recommended that psychological assessments and insightful counselling should be encouraged among LGBT adolescents. The purposeful intervention might enable early identification of psychological problems, and in turn, enables early psychosocial interventions that will address the prevailing psychological distress experienced among LGBT adolescents because of bullying victimisation.

among heterosexual and LGBT adolescents in South Africa.In line with this, the following are the specific objectives of this study: • To examine the comparative experiences of traditional bullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa • To evaluate the comparative experiences of cyberbullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa • To juxtapose the experiences of psychological distress among heterosexual and LGBT inschool adolescents in South Africa The specific objectives of this study informed the following research hypotheses.H1: There will be a significant difference in the experiences of traditional bullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT school adolescents in South Africa.
H2: There will be a significant difference in the experiences of cyberbullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa H3: There will be a significant difference in the experiences of psychological distress because of bullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa

LITERATURE REVIEW Bullying Victimisation and Psychological Distress
Bullying victimisation is one of the significant risk factors for psychological distress among adolescents.11Psychological distress can be described as an unpleasant emotional state that an individual experiences in reaction to a specific stressor or demand that causes harm either permanently or temporarily to the person. 12Psychological distress is often used by numerous scholars to cover a wider spectrum of emotional and behavioural problems not limited to feelings of depression, anxiety, negative thoughts (suicide ideation), withdrawal from social activities, etc. 13 Sansone and Sansone as well as Bifulco et al. reported that victims of bullying may experience signs of psychological distress such as worry, sadness, anxiety, nightmares, restlessness or loneliness. 14revious studies showed a significant association between bullying victimisation and psychological distress. 15Selkie et al. found a significant association between bullying victimisation and depression among female adolescents college students. 16In addition, a result of a meta-analysis by Kowalski et al. which synthesised one hundred anf thirty-one (131) studies indicated a strong association between bullying victimisation and psychological distress. 17he prevalence of psychological distress because of bullying victimisation among adolescents in South Africa is not a concern peculiar to South Africa; it is, rather, considered a worldwide phenomenon. 18That is to say, globally, the prevalence of psychological distress because of bullying victimisation among adolescents is also overwhelming.For instance, in a transnational study conducted in forty (40) developing countries to examine the prevalence of psychological distress resulting from bullying victimisation, the result revealed that an average of 37% of adolescents girls had psychological distress after they experienced bullying victimisation, while a prevalence rate of 42% rate was found among their male counterparts. 19In addition, a recent meta-analysis of eithty (80) international studies revealed that the prevalence rate of psychological distress among adolescents victims of bullying is 34.5%. 20In addition, a study conducted in India reported a 33.8% prevalence rate of psychological distress among school adolescents due to bullying victimisation experiences. 21n Africa, a high prevalence of psychological distress was also reported among school adolescents who experienced bullying victimisation.For instance, the study by Siziya and Mazaba conducted in Zambia reported a prevalence of 15.7% psychological distress among school adolescents who experienced bullying victimisation. 22In South Africa, a study by Burger reported a 56.9% prevalence of psychological distress among adolescents who were victims of bullying. 23dolescents across different lines of sexual orientations and gender identities (heterosexual or LGBT) experienced bullying victimisation in both traditional ways and remote wise.Traditional bullying is exerted through face-to-face dealings between the perpetrators and victims.On the other hand, cyberbullying (remote) entails the use of electronics and digital means such as phones, text messages, social media (Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, TikTok,), and instant messages through the internet to harass, assault or intimidate victims. 24he study of Garaigordobil et al. explored the differences in heterosexual and non-heterosexual sexual orientations in the experience of bullying and cyberbullying. 25The findings of the study revealed that the experience of cyberbullying was higher among non-heterosexual adolescents than heterosexual adolescents.Similarly, the study by Robinson and Espelage reported that college students who identify as LGBTQ had a more significant experience of bullying victimisation than their heterosexual counterparts. 26The study further revealed that students who self-identified as LGBTQ were 3.3 times more likely to experience suicidal ideation and its attempts than heterosexuals.Similarly, LGBT students reported more cases of peer victimisation compared to their counterparts who are heterosexual.Furthermore, Garaigordobil et al. explored the differences between heterosexual and non-heterosexual sexual orientations in the experience of mental health problems. 27The study supportably stated that non-heterosexual adolescents are significantly more depressed and expressed high social anxiety and psychopathological symptoms than their heterosexual counterparts.

METHODOLOGY
This section embodies the research design, setting of the study, sampling technique, research instruments and administration, as well as ethical considerations.

Research Design
This study adopted an ex-post facto research design.The design allows the establishment of links between an already existing outcome in bullying victimisation experiences and psychological distress among the sampled population.

Sampling and Research Participants
The study's population was in-school adolescents in South Africa.The participants were purposively selected from the population of concern within the geographical mapping of South Africa.The data was accordingly collected from participants who met the inclusion criteria for participating in the study.The inclusion-exclusion criteria for selecting participants were:  Adolescents between the age ranges of 11years of 20 years  Must reside and attend school in South Africa  Must self-identified as heterosexual or LGBT adolescents  Ability to read, understand and write in the English language A total of one hundred and forty ( 140) respondents (27 males, 113 females) students participated in the study.In terms of their age ranges, participants in their early adolescents (11 to 14 years) were 02 (1.4%), mid-adolescents (15 to 17years) were 64 (45.7%) while those in their late adolescents (age 18 to 20 years) were 74 (52.9%).Regarding participants' sexual orientation, 103 (73.6%) self-identified as heterosexuals, while 37 (26.4%)self-identified as members of the LGBT community.

Instruments and Measures
A structured standardised questionnaire was used to collect data in this study.The questionnaire contained three (3) sections, and each section sought information on variables of interest.Section A retrieves information on the demographic characteristics (age, sexual orientation, gender, marital status) of the research participants.Section B measures the bullying victimisation experiences of participants, and section C measures the psychological distress of the study participants.
Section B quantifies the bullying components (B1 for the traditional bullying scale and B2 for cyberbullying scale).The B1 component was measured using the Olweus Bully Questionnaire (1996) which asked how frequently participants did experience traditional bullying victimisation from colleagues or people around in the last 2months. 28Each item was evaluated on a 5-point scale.This scale reported the reliability of Cronbach's alpha value of 0.76.Accordingly, the B2 component was informed by cyberbullying scale. 29The scale is also a 5-point Likert scale which explored the experience of cyberbullying in the past 2 months among the study participants.The subscale also reported a strong Cronbach alpha reliability of 0.73.
Section C of the instruments measures the psychological distress among the study participants using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10).Items of the K-10 scale are scored from 1 'none of the time' to 5 'all of the time'.The higher the scores of the participants on the K-10 scale, the higher the level of psychological distress experienced and the lower the scores, the lower the level of psychological distress.

Data Collection and Procedures
As the study was an ex-post-facto survey study, data were retrieved through a set of structured and validated questionnaires which enabled an objective assessment of the constructs of interest in the study.Participants who met the inclusion criteria were engaged in the study.A detailed informed assent/consent form (stating all the ethical requirements) was made available to prospective participants who willingly consented to participate in the study.

Ethical Approval
A complete research proposal was submitted to the Chair of the Ethics Review Committee (ERC) and ethical approval was subsequently issued by the author's institution.The ethics approval and a letter of permission were submitted to the management of the selected schools in South Africa, requesting their collaboration in providing crucial information during the data collection.This letter of permission gave the researchers easy access to the participants.

Data Analyses
Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used to test the relationship between the study's variables.In addition, inferential statistics, (t-test) of the independent sample, through the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS v 28), was used to test for the significance of the research hypotheses.

FINDINGS
This section deals with data analyses and interpretation of the results.The data analyses were reported in two phases; the first phase is the correlational matrix of the study's variables, and the second phase revealed the results of the tested three research hypotheses in the present study.The results are presented in tables 1 and 2.

Zero-order correlation among the study's variables
Zero-order correlations of all study variables were tested to check for the inter-correlation among the study variables.The following variables were examined, and the results were presented below (see table 1): socio-demographic factors (age, and sexual orientation), traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and psychological distress.Outcomes revealed a significant positive correlation between participants' age and experience of psychological distress due to bullying victimisation (r=-.150,p<.05) which implies that the older the age of school adolescents, the higher the experiences of psychological distress.Insignificant relationships were found between sexual orientation (r=-.067,p>.05), and psychological distress.Furthermore, analysis reveals that traditional bullying (r=-.243,p<.01) and cyberbullying (r=-.367,p<.01) have a positive and significant relationship with psychological distress, such that, the more the experience of either traditional or cyberbullying victimisation the more the experience of psychological distress among in-school adolescents.

Test of Research Hypotheses
The results of the comparative analyses used for testing the stated hypotheses are presented below.The outcomes were reported as per the specified objectives of the study (see table 2).2).The findings revealed that sexual orientations and gender identities do not have a significant influence on the experience of traditional bullying victimisation among in-school adolescents (t = 0.065, df = 138, p > .05).In other words, outcomes revealed that there was no significant difference in the experience of traditional bullying among heterosexual and LGBT school adolescents in South Africa.This outcome did not conform to the hypothesis one of this study.Therefore, study hypothesis one is rejected..

Study Outcome 2
Study outcome 2 was set to examine the comparative experiences of cyberbullying among heterosexual and LGBT school adolescents in South Africa (see table 2).The findings revealed that sexual orientations and gender identity have a significant influence on the experience of cyberbullying victimisation among adolescents (t = 04.71,df = 138, p < .01).Further interpretations revealed that LGBT school adolescents (ẋ=53.44;SD=05.03) reported higher experiences of cyberbullying victimisation, compared to their heterosexual counterparts (ẋ=45.84;SD=06.57).This outcome confirmed hypothesis two of this study, which states that there is a significant difference in the experience of cyberbullying victimisation between heterosexual and LGBT adolescents.The second hypothesis of this study is therefore accepted.

Study Outcome 3
Study outcome 3 was set to examine the comparative experiences of psychological distress among heterosexual and LGBT school adolescents in South Africa (see table 2).The findings revealed that sexual orientations have a significant influence on the experience of psychological distress among adolescents (t = 07.22,df = 138, p < .01).Further interpretations revealed that LGBT school adolescents (ẋ=30.28;SD=0.75) reported higher experience of psychological distress, compared to their heterosexual counterparts (ẋ=24.87;SD=03.15).This outcome confirmed the study's hypothesis three, which hypothesised a significant difference in the experience of psychological distress between LGBT and heterosexual adolescents.Therefore, study hypothesis three is accepted.

DISCUSSION
The result of this study revealed that there is no significant difference in the experience of traditional bullying victimisation among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa.However, this result does not go in the direction of the result of the study by Garaigordobil et al. who reported that the experience of traditional bullying is higher among non-heterosexual adolescents than heterosexual adolescents. 30The difference in the findings could be due to socio-cultural knowledge and acceptance of diverse sexual orientations and the strong legal framework that protects the rights of LGBT persons and communities in South Africa.Furthermore, the result of this study also revealed that sexual orientations and gender identity have a significant influence on the experience of cyberbullying victimisation among adolescents such that LGBT adolescents reported higher experiences of cyberbullying victimisation, compared to their heterosexual counterparts.This result is similar to the findings of Robinson and Espelage, which reported that college students who identify as LGBTQ had more significant experiences of cyberbullying victimisation than their heterosexual counterparts. 31The findings of a study by Robinson and Espelage further revealed that adolescents who self-identified as LGBTQ experienced suicidal ideation and attempts suicide 3.3 times more than heterosexual adolescents.
Lastly, the result of this study also indicated that sexual orientations have a significant influence on the adolescent experience of psychological distress because of bullying victimisation.Further interpretations revealed that LGBT adolescents reported higher experiences of psychological distress, compared to their heterosexual counterparts.This finding resonates with the report of a study by Garaigordobil et al., which supportably stated that non-heterosexual adolescents are significantly more depressed and expressed high social anxiety and psychopathological symptoms than their heterosexual counterparts.32

CONCLUSION
This research study that examined the comparative analyses of traditional bullying, cyberbullying and psychological distress among heterosexual and LGBT adolescents in South Africa is particularly significant because not many studies explore the differences in the bullying experiences of LGBT adolescents and their heterosexual counterparts.The purpose of this study was, therefore, to examine the comparative analyses of traditional bullying, cyberbullying and psychological distress among heterosexual and LGBT adolescents in South Africa.This study concludes that there was no significant difference in the experience of traditional bullying victimisation among LGBT adolescents and their heterosexual counterparts.However, significant differences were observed in the experience of cyberbullying victimisation and psychological distress among LGBT adolescents and their heterosexual counterparts.Participants who self-identified as LGBT adolescents reported experience of cyberbullying victimisation and psychological distress more than heterosexual adolescents.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this study, the following measures are suggested to reduce the experience of cyberbullying victimisation that leads to psychological distress among vulnerable LGBT in-school adolescents.
Concerned authorities and policymakers should take cognisance thereof that LGBT in-school adolescents are susceptible to cyberbullying victimisation.The management and school counsellor should underline the factors in designing school-based intervention in handling presenting problems among the vulnerable population.Internet users and society at large equally need to be informed about the dangers associated with cyberbullying behaviour and simplify to them what constitutes bullying and the need to avoid it for humanity's purpose.Tolerance messages could be passed to the general masses through various media means, such as the internet/social networks, television, and radio programmes.
Psychological assessments and insightful counselling should be encouraged among the vulnerable group i.e.LGBT adolescents.The purposeful intervention might enable early identification of psychological problems, and in turn, enable early psychosocial interventions that will address the prevailing psychological distress experienced by adolescents as a result of bullying victimisation.

LIMITATIONS
The current study utilised a relatively small number of participants, and a gap difference in the numbers of LGBT and heterosexual adolescents, which could cofound the outcome of the study.Also, response bias in a study like this may be difficult to control.Future studies should consider factoring in these aspects.Considering the limitations observed in this study, the present findings should be interpreted and/or generalised with caution, as there is a likelihood that if more respondents were to be involved the outcomes might have changed.

ABOUT AUTHORS
Dr. Abayomi O. Olaseni is a clinical psychologist, with PhD. in Clinical Psychology, and a registered member of the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA), Nigerian Association of Clinical Psychology (NACP), and American Psychological Association (APA).He has six years of teaching experience and over seven years of practice experience in handling various mental health problems.I am currently a postdoctoral fellow at the University of South Africa.
Dr. Segun Emmanuel Adewoye is a Post-Doctoral research fellow at the University of South Africa, College of Human Sciences, Department of Psychology.He has published articles on bullying and cyberbullying among adolescents in accredited local and international journals.He has shown a commitment for working and caring for students who require counselling, as well as providing psychological assistance to learners who require it.SE Adewoye intends to continue his work as an Educational Psychologist and researcher by conducting psychotherapy research to better understands how to help an individual in need of psychological service.

Table 1 : Showing inter-variable correlations among the study's variables using Pearson Product Moment Correlations
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level(2-tailed).**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level(2-tailed).

Table 2 - t-test of independent samples showing the significant differences in bullying victimisation experiences and psychological distress among same-sex and heterosexuals adolescents
Study outcome 1 was set to examine the comparative experiences of traditional bullying among heterosexual and LGBT in-school adolescents in South Africa (see table