Climate-Induced Water Stress and Gendered Vulnerabilities: An Exploration of Women’s Adaptive Strategies in Urban Zimbabwe
Douglas Nyathi 
, Victor H. Mlambo & Cynthia N. Ndlovu
Issue: Vol. 6 No.12 Article 35 pp.3376 – 3392
DOI: https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.202561235 | Published online 28th November, 2025
© 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Climate change-induced water scarcity in Africa is magnifying pre-existing gender inequalities, particularly in urban settings where women disproportionately shoulder the burden due to socio-cultural roles and economic marginalisation. This qualitative case study, grounded in Social-Ecological Resilience Theory, explored the gendered dimensions of water insecurity and adaptive strategies among low-income women in Makokoba, one of Bulawayo’s oldest high-density suburbs. Drawing on insights from 30 in-depth interviews, 8 key informants, and 2 focus group discussions with women aged 18 to 60 years, the study identified four critical vulnerability domains: the feminisation of water collection, deteriorating urban water infrastructure, socio-economic precarity, and limited climate risk awareness. In navigating these challenges, women employ a spectrum of adaptive strategies, including water rationing, informal rotational water collection systems, grey-water reuse, and community-based water-sharing networks. Although these practices reflect agency and resilience, they remain largely informal, inequitable, and unsustainable without institutional support. The findings highlight a persistent gap between policy frameworks and lived experiences, with many water governance policies failing to address gender-specific needs. The study calls for urgent investment in gender-responsive infrastructure, inclusive water governance, and locally grounded capacity-building interventions. By centering women’s voices and everyday realities, this research contributes to broader discourses on equitable urban climate adaptation and resilience in Southern Africa.
Keywords: Gender, Water Insecurity, Vulnerability, Adaptation, Coping Mechanisms.
Agarwal, B. Gender and Green Governance. London: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Ahopelto, Lauri, Suvi Sojamo, Antti Belinskij, Niko Soininen, and Marko Keskinen. “Water Governance for Water Security: Analysing Institutional Strengths and Challenges in Finland.” International Journal of Water Resources Development 40, no. 2 (March 3, 2024): 153–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2023.2266733.
Bambrick, H. “Climate Change and Health in Africa: Issues and Challenges.” Public Health Reviews 36, no. 1 (2015): 1–11.
Bazeley, P., and K. Jackson. Qualitative Data Analysis with NVivo. 2nd ed. London: SAGE Publications, 2013.
Bhadwal, Suruchi, Ghanashyam Sharma, Ganesh Gorti, and Sudeshna Maya Sen. “Livelihoods, Gender and Climate Change in the Eastern Himalayas.” Environmental Development 31 (September 2019): 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2019.04.008.
Chikozho, C. “Towards Strategic Use of Water Resources in the Limpopo River Basin: Mapping the Institutional Landscape.” Africa Institute of South Africa, Occasional Paper 55, 2008.
Creswell, J. W., and C. N. Poth. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches . SAGE Publications, 2018.
Denzin, Norman K. The Research Act. Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315134543.
Dipela, Mmaphuti Percy, and Sello Sithole. “Under-Utilisation of Internal Employee Assistance Programme (EAP) Services by the South African Police Service in Lephalale, Limpopo Province.” Social Work 57, no. 4 (2021): 486–98.
Dossou, K. M., and G. B. Dossou. “ Climate Change: A New Threat to Gender Equity in Africa.” International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 2, no. 2 (2007): 145–60.
Dube, A., and M. Dube. “ The Role of Educational Systems in Fostering Women’s Leadership in Africa.” International Journal of Education and Leadership, 18, no.2(2020):143–56.
Dube, K., and W. Gumindoga. “Urban Water Crises in Zimbabwe: Climate Change, Infrastructure Failure, and Gendered Impacts.” Water Policy 23, no. 4 (2021): 712–30.
Elmhirst, Rebecca. “Introducing New Feminist Political Ecologies.” Geoforum 42, no.2 (2011): 129–32.
Elson, D. Male Bias in the Development Process. 2nd ed. Manchester University Press, 1995.
Fereday, Jennifer, and Eimear Muir-Cochrane. “Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development.” International Journal of Qualitative Methods 5, no. 1 (2006): 80–92.
Folke, C. Resilience: The Science of Adaptation to Climate Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Folke, Carl, Thomas Hahn, Per Olsson, and Jon Norberg. “Adaptive Governance of Social-Ecological Systems.” Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 30, no. 1 (2005): 441–73.
Glaser, B. G., and A. L. Strauss. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967.
Grothmann, Torsten, and Anthony Patt. “Adaptive Capacity and Human Cognition: The Process of Individual Adaptation to Climate Change.” Global Environmental Change 15, no. 3 (October 2005): 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.01.002.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009325844.
Israel, M., and I. Hay. Research Ethics for Social Scientists: Between Ethical Conduct and Regulatory Compliance. London: SAGE Publications, 2006.
Kariuki, Mukami, Sumila Gulyani, and Debabrata Talukdar. “Water for the Urban Poor: Water Markets, Household Demand, and Service Preferences in Kenya,” n.d.
Kvale, S., and S. Brinkmann. InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2015.
Lincoln, Y S, and E G Guba. “Naturalistic Inquiry. London, United Kingdom: Sage,” 1985.
Maanen, van J. Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography. London: The University of Chicago Press., 2011.
Manjengwa, J., D. Tirivanhu, and L. Zhou. “ Access to Water in Poor Urban Communities in Zimbabwe: The Case of Mabvuku and Tafara.” Urban Forum 25, no. 4 (2014): 503–16.
Marx, A., M., Maertens, J. F. Swinnen, and B. de Steenhuijsen Piters. Private Standards and Global Governance: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013.
Matondi, P. B. “Water Reforms in Zimbabwe: Context, Issues and Challenges.” In The Gender Politics of Water Policy Reforms in Zimbabwe , edited by P. B. Matondi and K. Mudege, 1–25. Weaver Press, 2011.
Matsa, M. “Climate Change and Water Stress in Harare: A Gendered Political Ecology Perspective.” Geoforum 128 (2022): 1–12.
Mawere, M. “Coping with Water Scarcity: A Critical Analysis of the Culture of Water Supply and Management in Urban Zimbabwe.” Journal of Environmental and Sustainability Issues 2, no. 1 (2013): 18–28.
Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development. The National Gender Policy. Harare: Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, 2017.
Moser, C., A. Norton, A. Stein, and S. Georgieva. Pro-Poor Adaptation to Climate Change in Urban Centers: Case Studies of Vulnerability and Resilience in Kenya and Nicaragua. World Bank, 2010.
Mpofu, Shepherd. Digital Humour in the Covid-19 Pandemic. Springer, 2021.
Mudungwe, Peter. “Migration Governance in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.” African Human Mobility Review 11, no. 1 (2025): 13–40.
Musarurwa, M. “The Politics of Water in Zimbabwe: Urban Water Supply and Sanitation during the Crisis Period.” Journal of African Studies and Development 2, no. 7 (2010): 190–200.
Ndebele-Murisa, M. R., C. P. Mubaya, and L. Pretorius. Climate Change Trends and Impacts in Southern Africa: A Synthesis of Key Literature. 2nd ed. SARUA, 2020.
Ndlovu, Zanele A., and Lytion Chiromo. “Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers’ Development Process in Using Manipulatives in Number Operations.” South African Journal of Childhood Education 9, no. 1 (September 5, 2019). https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v9i1.698.
Nhapi, I. “Water Policy, Access and Sustainability in Zimbabwe.” In Water and Policy Reform in Southern Africa , edited by M. van Koppen, B. Schreiner, and H. Fakir, 173–92. HSRC Press, 2015.
Nightingale, A. J. “The Nature of Gender: Work, Gender, and Environment.” Environment and Planning Development 24, no. 2 (2006): 165–85.
Nyathi, Douglas, and Victor H. Mlambo. “Urban Agriculture and Climate Change: Ensuring Household Food Security Through Building Resilience in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.” In University Initiatives on Climate Change Education and Research, edited by W. Leal Filho, M. Sima, Lange Salvia A., M. Kovaleva, and E. Manolas, 1–19. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25960-9_102-1.
Nyathi, Douglas, Joram Ndlovu, Stanley Maphosa, Thembelihle Nyathi, and Nkosilamandla Kunene. “The Intersection of Climate Change and Gender-Based Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Synthesis,” 45–63, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-90236-9_3.
Nyathi, Douglas, Joram Ndlovu, Admire Mare, Munyaradzi A. Dzvimbo, and Mduduzi Ndlovu. “Women’s Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change in Agrarian Settings of Zimbabwe.” In Climate Crisis, Social Responses and Sustainability. Climate Change Management. , edited by U. Mukhopadhyay, S. Bhattacharya, P. Chouhan, S. Paul, I.R. Chowdhury, and U. Chatterjee, 541–59. Cham.: Springer, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58261-5_23.
Orb, Angelica, Laurel Eisenhauer, and Dianne Wynaden. “Ethics in Qualitative Research.” Journal of Nursing Scholarship 33, no. 1 (March 23, 2001): 93–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2001.00093.x.
Palys, Ted. “Purposive Sampling.” The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods 2, no. 1 (2008): 697–98.
Parry, M. L., N. W. Arnell, P. M. Berry, D. Dodman, S. Fankhauser, C. Hope, and S. Kovats. Assessing the Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change: A Review of the UNFCCC and Other Recent Estimates. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) & Grantham Institute for Climate Change, 2009.
Patton, Michael Quinn. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 4th ed. SAGE, 2015.
Pillow, Wanda. “Confession, Catharsis, or Cure? Rethinking the Uses of Reflexivity as Methodological Power in Qualitative Research.” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 16, no. 2 (March 2003): 175–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839032000060635.
Resurrección, Bernadette P. “Persistent Women and Environment Linkages in Climate Change and Sustainable Development Agendas.” In Women’s Studies International Forum, 40:33–43. Elsevier, 2013.
Rocheleau, D., B. Thomas-Slayter, and E. Wangari. Feminist Political Ecology: Global Issues and Local Experiences. Routledge, 1996.
Simelane, T., and M. Simelane. “ Gender Dimensions of Access and Use of Water in Rural Households of Swaziland.” Africa Insight 45, no. 2 (2015): 108–22.
Sultana, F. Political Ecology of Water and Gender: Feminist Perspectives. London: Routledge, 2022.
Tandon, Anushree, Amandeep Dhir, Puneet Kaur, Shiksha Kushwah, and Jari Salo. “Why Do People Buy Organic Food? The Moderating Role of Environmental Concerns and Trust.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 57 (2020): 102247.
Tandon, Indrakshi, Corinne Wallace, Martina Angela Caretta, Sumit Vij, and Alison Irvine. “Urban Water Insecurity and Its Gendered Impacts: On the Gaps in Climate Change Adaptation and Sustainable Development Goals.” Climate and Development 16, no. 3 (March 15, 2024): 187–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2022.2051418.
Tarisayi, K. S. “ NGOs and the Politics of Water Provision in Zimbabwe’s Urban Informal Settlements.” Development in Practice 32, no. 4 (2022): 532–45.
Tracy, Sarah J. “Qualitative Quality: Eight ‘Big-Tent’ Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 16, no. 10 (December 1, 2010): 837–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121.
Truelove, Y. “ (Re-) Conceptualizing Water Inequality in Delhi.” Geoforum 42, no. 2 (2011): 143–52.
UN-Habitat. World Cities Report 2016: Urbanization and Development—Emerging Futures. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2016.
UN Water. United Nations World Water Development Report. Paris: UNESCO, 2021.
Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. Sage Publications, 2018.
Ziervogel, Gina, Johan Enqvist, Luke Metelerkamp, and John van Breda. “Supporting Transformative Climate Adaptation: Community-Level Capacity Building and Knowledge Co-Creation in South Africa.” Climate Policy 22, no. 5 (May 28, 2022): 607–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1863180.
Douglas Nyathi is a development practitioner and public policy specialist with over a decade of experience in climate resilience, sustainable agriculture, and community livelihoods programming. He holds a PhD in Public Policy from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. His work integrates policy analysis, participatory research, and systems thinking to support equitable, climate-responsive development in Zimbabwe and the broader Southern African region. He is currently a Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Victor H. Mlambo is a governance and international relations scholar whose work focuses on African political systems, development policy, and the dynamics of regional integration. He has published widely on democratic processes, public sector reform, and the socio-economic challenges shaping contemporary African states. Victor’s research blends political analysis with evidence-based development insights, contributing to academic, policy, and public discourse. He has taught and supervised students across social science disciplines and is committed to advancing African-centred scholarship. His work continues to inform governance debates, institutional strengthening, and sustainable development initiatives across the continent.
Cynthia N. Ndlovu is a development practitioner committed to advancing gender equality, community empowerment, and sustainable livelihoods in Southern Africa. With experience spanning programme design, community engagement, and evidence-based advocacy, she has worked with grassroots organisations and development partners to strengthen social inclusion and economic resilience among vulnerable groups. Cynthia’s work integrates participatory approaches, capacity building, and results-focused project management to support transformative community outcomes. She is passionate about amplifying women’s voices, promoting youth empowerment, and driving policies that foster equitable development.
Nyathi, Douglas, Victor H. Mlambo, and Cynthia N. Ndlovu,“Climate-Induced Water Stress and Gendered Vulnerabilities: An Exploration of Women’s Adaptive Strategies in Urban Zimbabwe,” E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences 6, no. 12 (2025): 3376 – 3392, https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.202561235.
© 2025 The Author(s). Published and Maintained by Noyam Journals. This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
