Greening Brick and Mortar in South Africa: A Critical Review of Green Architecture and Green Technologies

Tackson Makandwa ORCID iD & Maheshvari Naidu ORCID iD

Issue: Vol. 6 No.14 Article 5 pp. 3616 – 3642
DOI: https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.20256147| Published online 29th December, 2025
© 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Views: 72
63 Downloads

DOWNLOAD PDF

This paper presents a critical review of green architecture and green technologies, focusing on their evolution and implementation within the South African context. As climate change, resource scarcity, and urbanisation accelerate, the construction industry in South Africa is also arguably increasingly embracing sustainable building practices. This study, in turn, employed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology to systematically review existing literature on green architecture and technologies relevant to South Africa from 2015 to 2024. Using a clear and reproducible process of screening and selection of peer-reviewed studies, the study synthesized and identified trends, challenges, and opportunities in the greening of brick-and-mortar construction. The findings reveal an increasing recognition and implementation of sustainable practices, especially in the utilisation of alternative materials, energy-efficient design, and water-conserving technologies. The review also recognizes considerable obstacles, such as elevated costs, insufficient regulatory enforcement, and a deficiency in technical proficiency. For the more successful integration of green design into mainstream construction, there is a demand for policy alignment, stakeholder education, and incentives for innovation. This assessment, borne out by the literature review, enhances the comprehension of sustainable development in the Global South and provides a basis for future research and practice in green architecture and green technology.

Keywords: Green architecture, Green technologies, Green bricks, Green mortar, South Africa, PRISMA, Sustainable construction

Adegun, Olumuyiwa Bayode. “Exploring Just Sustainability in Re-Blocking Intervention in a Johannesburg Informal Settlement.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 53, no. 5 (2018): 782–96.

Adetooto, Johnson, and Abimbola Windapo. “Concomitant Impediments to the Social Acceptance of Sandbag Technology for Sustainable and Affordable Housing Delivery: The Case of South Africa.” Buildings 12, no. 6 (2022): 859.

Adetooto, Johnson, Abimbola Windapo, and Francesco Pomponi. “The Use of Alternative Building Technologies as a Sustainable Affordable Housing Solution: Perspectives from South Africa.” Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology 22, no. 5 (2024): 1447–63.

Agbajor, Favour D, and Modupe Cecilia Mewomo. “Green Building Research in South Africa: A Scoping Review and Future Roadmaps.”  Energy and Built Environment  5, no. 2 (2024): 316–35.

Aghimien, Douglas Omoregie, John Aliu, and Clinton Aigbavboa. “Exploring Blue-Green Roof for a Sustainable Built Environment in South Africa.”  Smart and Sustainable Built Environment. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2024.

Aigbavboa, Clinton, Ifije Ohiomah, and Thulisile Zwane. “Sustainable Construction Practices:‘A Lazy View’ of Construction Professionals in the South Africa Construction Industry.” Energy Procedia 105 (2017): 3003–10.

Amoah, Christopher, and Jeanne Smith. “Barriers to the Green Retrofitting of Existing Residential Buildings.” Journal of Facilities Management 22, no. 2 (2024): 194–209.

Andersson, David Emanuel, and Åke E Andersson. “Sustainability and the Built Environment: The Role of Durability.” Sustainability 11, no. 18 (2019): 4926.

Awuzie, Bankole O, Thabiso G Monyane, Chad De Koker, and Clinton O Aigbavboa. “Evaluation of Factors Influencing Environmental Sustainability Performance of Construction Projects in South Africa.” Sustainability and Climate Change 14, no. 2 (2021): 122–32.

Aziz, Nurul Nadia Abd, Nor Khairunnisa Mat Yunus, Maisarah Ishak, and Nur Shuhada Ya’acob. “The Mediating Effects of Student Satisfaction on Technostress and Performance Expectancy.” In Accelerating Transformation towards Sustainable and Resilient Business: Lessons Learned from the COVID-19 Crisis, 834–48. European Proceedings of Finance and Economics, 2023. https://doi.org/10.15405/epfe.23081.76.

Bhanye, Johannes, Monaphathi Timothy Lehobo, Kgosi Mocwagae, and Ruvimbo Shayamunda. “Strategies for Sustainable Innovative Affordable Housing (SIAH) for Low Income Families in Africa: A Rapid Review Study.” Discover Sustainability 5, no. 1 (2024): 157.

Boshoff, Brian, and Cornelia Mey. “The Building Emission Reduction Potential of South African Residential Building Efficiency Tools–A Review.” Acta Structilia 27, no. 2 (2020): 151–85.

Bungau, Constantin C, Tudor Bungau, Ioana Francesca Prada, and Marcela Florina Prada. “Green Buildings as a Necessity for Sustainable Environment Development: Dilemmas and Challenges.” Sustainability 14, no. 20 (2022): 13121.

Carden, Kirsty, Neil Armitage, Lloyd Fisher-Jeffes, Kevin Winter, Benjamin Mauck, Tom Sanya, Preetya Bhikha, Greg Mallett, Thokozani Kanyerere, and Siyamthande Gxokwe. “Challenges and Opportunities for Implementing Water Sensitive Design in South Africa.” WRC Project Report K 5 (2018): 1–120.

Chan, Albert P C, Amos Darko, Ernest E Ameyaw, and De-Graft Owusu-Manu. “Barriers Affecting the Adoption of Green Building Technologies.” Journal of Management in Engineering 33, no. 3 (2017): 04016057.

Chavalala, Bongani, Vuyo Mjimba, and Godwell Nhamo. “Green Building in the Context of Climate Change.” The Green Building Evolution, 2019, 22.

Cheriyan, Daniel, and Jae-ho Choi. “A Review of Research on Particulate Matter Pollution in the Construction Industry.” Journal of Cleaner Production 254 (2020): 120077.

Cole, Laura B. “Green Building Literacy: A Framework for Advancing Green Building Education.” International Journal of STEM Education 6, no. 1 (2019): 18.

Crafford, Philip L, and C Brand Wessels. “South African Log Resource Availability and Potential Environmental Impact of Timber Construction.” South African Journal of Science 116, no. 7–8 (2020): 1–8.

Darko, Amos, and Albert Ping Chuen Chan. “Strategies to Promote Green Building Technologies Adoption in Developing Countries: The Case of Ghana.” Building and Environment 130 (2018): 74–84.

DFFE. “Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment Annual Report 2021/22.” 2020.

Dosumu, Oluwaseun, and Clinton Aigbavboa. “Drivers and Effects of Sustainable Construction in the South African Construction Industry.” Acta Structilia 28, no. 2 (2021): 78–107.

Ebhota, Williams S, and Pavel Y Tabakov. “Assessment of Solar PV Potential and Performance of a Household System in Durban North, Durban, South Africa.” Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 24, no. 4 (2022): 1241–59.

Emere, Chijioke Emmanuel, Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa, Olusegun Aanuoluwapo Oguntona, and Babatunde Fatai Ogunbayo. “A Principal Component Analysis of Corporate Dispositions for Sustainable Building Construction in South Africa.” Frontiers in Built Environment 10 (2024): 1447621.

Emere, Chijioke Emmanuel, Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa, Wellington Didibhuku Thwala, and Opeoluwa Israel Akinradewo. “A Principal Component Analysis of Sustainable Building Construction Features for Project Delivery in South Africa.” Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 2024.

G20 South Africa. G20 South Africa., 2025.

Garg, Deepak Kumar. “Environmental Challenges and Sustainable Development.” Journal of Global Values 14 (2023): 203–10.

GBCSA. “Net Zero Movement. .” In Conference Proceedings.  . Cape Town.: https://gbcsaconvention.org.z, 2018.

Ginidza, B. “South Africa Advocates for New Energy Transition Strategies at G20 Meeting ,” 2025.

Gunnell, Kelly, Chrisna Du Plessis, and Jeremy Gibberd. “Green Building in South Africa: Emerging Trends.” Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT), 2009.

Gwedla, Nanamhla, Charlie M Shackleton, and Lausanne Olvitt. “Trees Stocks in Domestic Gardens and Willingness to Participate in Tree Planting Initiatives in Low-Cost Housing Areas of the Eastern Cape, South Africa.” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 68 (2022): 127484.

Hariram, N P, K B Mekha, Vipinraj Suganthan, and K Sudhakar. “Sustainalism: An Integrated Socio-Economic-Environmental Model to Address Sustainable Development and Sustainability.” Sustainability 15, no. 13 (2023): 10682.

Hoffman, Danie, Ling-Yi Huang, Jean Van Rensburg, and Amy Yorke-Hart. “Trends in Application of Green Star SA Credits in South African Green Building.” Acta Structilia 27, no. 2 (2020): 1–29.

Howe, J Cullen. “Overview of Green Buildings.” Envtl. L. Rep. News & Analysis 41 (2011): 10043.

Isimbi, Delphine, and Jihyun Park. “The Analysis of the EDGE Certification System on Residential Complexes to Improve Sustainability and Affordability.” Buildings 12, no. 10 (2022): 1729.

Kajiita, Robert Mutemi, and Simon Murote Kang’ethe. “Socio-Economic Dynamics Inhibiting Inclusive Urban Economic Development: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development in South African Cities.” Sustainability 16, no. 7 (2024): 2803.

Kumar, Jitender, Garima Rani, Manju Rani, and Vinki Rani. “Exploring Sustainable Pathways in the Green Housing Market: An Investigation of Green Housing Purchase Behavior by Using PLS-SEM.” Property Management 43, no. 2 (2025): 288–304.

Leu, Sou-Sen, and Jun-Yang Shi. “Effective Green Building Design Assessment Support Using Sequential Multidisciplinary Design Optimization.” Journal of Building Engineering 96 (2024): 110543.

Loggia, Claudia, Vittorio Tramontin, and Cristina Trois. “Sustainable Housing in Developing Countries: Meeting Social and Environmental Targets by ‘Greening’ Low-Income Settlements in South Africa.”  International Journal Sustainable Policy Practice 9, no. 4 (2015): 1–12.

Lombardi, Mara, Davide Berardi, Marta Galuppi, and Maurizio Barbieri. “Green Tunnel Solutions: An Overview of Sustainability Trends in the Last Decade (2013–2022).” Buildings 13, no. 2 (2023): 392.

Maake, Tebogo, Joseph K O Asante, Washington Mhike, and Bonex Mwakikunga. “Fire-Retardant Wood Polymer Composite to Be Used as Building Materials for South African Formal and Informal Dwellings—A Review.” Fire 8, no. 2 (2025): 81.

Maller, Cecily, Ralph Horne, and Tony Dalton. “Green Renovations: Intersections of Daily Routines, Housing Aspirations and Narratives of Environmental Sustainability.” Housing, Theory and Society 29, no. 3 (2012): 255–75.

Marsh, R J, A C Brent, and I H De Kock. “Understanding the Barriers and Drivers of Sustainable Construction Adoption and Implementation in South Africa: A Quantitative Study Using the Theoretical Domains Framework and COM-B Model.” Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering= Joernaal van Die Suid-Afrikaanse Instituut van Siviele Ingenieurswese 63, no. 4 (2021): 11–23.

Masia, Thendo, Kahilu Kajimo-Shakantu, and Akintayo Opawole. “A Case Study on the Implementation of Green Building Construction in Gauteng Province, South Africa.” Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal 31, no. 3 (2020): 602–23.

Matandirotya, Newton R, Dirk P Cilliers, Roelof P Burger, Christian Pauw, and Stuart J Piketh. “The Potential for Domestic Thermal Insulation Retrofits on the South African Highveld.” Clean Air Journal 29, no. 1 (2019): 21–28.

Mayrand, Flavie, and Philippe Clergeau. “Green Roofs and Green Walls for Biodiversity Conservation: A Contribution to Urban Connectivity?” Sustainability 10, no. 4 (2018): 985.

Mehra, Sukanya, Mandeep Singh, Geetika Sharma, Shiv Kumar, Navishi, and Pooja Chadha. “Impact of Construction Material on Environment.” In Ecological and Health Effects of Building Materials, 427–42. Springer, 2021.

Mensah, Justice. “Sustainable Development: Meaning, History, Principles, Pillars, and Implications for Human Action: Literature Review.” Cogent Social Sciences 5, no. 1 (2019): 1653531.

Moghayedi, Alireza, Bankole Awuzie, Temitope Omotayo, Karen Le Jeune, and Mark Massyn. “Appraising the Nexus between Influencers and Sustainability‐oriented Innovation Adoption in Affordable Housing Projects.” Sustainable Development 30, no. 5 (2022): 1117–34.

Moghayedi, Alireza, Dylan Hübner, and Kathy Michell. “Achieving Sustainability in South African Commercial Properties: The Impact of Innovative Technologies on Energy Consumption.” Facilities 41, no. 5/6 (2023): 321–36.

Moher, David, Alessandro Liberati, Jennifer Tetzlaff, and Douglas G Altman. “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement.” Bmj 339 (2009).

Murombo, Tumai. “Regulatory Imperatives for Renewable Energy: South African Perspectives.” Journal of African Law 66, no. 1 (2022): 97–122.

Mushi, Frank Victor, Huba Nguluma, and Jacob Kihila. “Factors Influencing Adoption of Green Buildings in Tanzania: A Qualitative Case Study.” International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation 43, no. 5 (2025): 1255–78.

Mutereko, S, E Shava, W Musazura, N Ndebele, and A Odindo. “The Role of the Local Government Sector in Promoting Renewable Energy and the Implications on Skills Development,” 2023.

Nhamo, Godwell, and Vuyo Mjimba. Sustainable Development Goals and Institutions of Higher Education. Springer, 2019.

———. The Green Building Evolution. African Books Collective, 2019.

Nhamo, Luxon, Lameck Rwizi, Sylvester Mpandeli, Joel Botai, James Magidi, Henerica Tazvinga, Nafiisa Sobratee, Stanley Liphadzi, Dhesigen Naidoo, and Albert T Modi. “Urban Nexus and Transformative Pathways towards a Resilient Gauteng City-Region, South Africa.” Cities 116 (2021): 103266.

Odubiyi, Tawakalitu Bisola, Rotimi Boluwatife Abidoye, Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa, Wellington Didibhuku Thwala, Adeyemi Samuel Ademiloye, and Olalekan Shamsideen Oshodi. “Impact of Green Features on Rental Value of Residential Properties: Evidence from South Africa.” Real Estate 1, no. 1 (2024): 65–79.

Ogra, Aurobindo, and George Onatu. “Metropolitan Housing Development in Urban Fringe Areas-a Case Study of Three Metropolitan Cities of South Africa: Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni and Tshwane.” Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 18 (2024): 244–53.

Oguntona, O A, O I Akinradewo, D L Ramorwalo, C O Aigbavboa, and W D Thwala. “Benefits and Drivers of Implementing Green Building Projects in South Africa.” In Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1378:032038. IOP Publishing, 2019.

Olawumi, Timothy O, and Daniel W M Chan. “A Scientometric Review of Global Research on Sustainability and Sustainable Development.” Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018): 231–50.

Owoha, Faith, Eric Kwame Simpeh, Julius Ayodeji Fapohunda, Divine Kwaku Ahadzie, and Henry Mensah. “Categorising Green Building Features in Developing Countries: The Case of South Africa.” Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology 20, no. 6 (2022): 1627–47.

Pillay, Theogan Logan, and Akshay Kumar Saha. “Passive, Low-Energy Design and Green Star Strategy for Green Star-Rated Buildings in South Africa.” Energies 15, no. 23 (2022): 9128.

Saini, Himanshi, and Lalita Ledwani. “A Review on Application of Green Materials in Different Construction Systems, Their Processing, Surface Modification, Testing and Certification.” MRS Energy & Sustainability 11, no. 2 (2024): 267–303.

Sarkis-Onofre, Rafael, Ferrán Catalá-López, Edoardo Aromataris, and Craig Lockwood. “How to Properly Use the PRISMA Statement.” Systematic Reviews 10, no. 1 (2021): 117.

Selçuk, Ayşe Adin. “A Guide for Systematic Reviews: PRISMA.” Turkish Archives of Otorhinolaryngology 57, no. 1 (2019): 57.

Shahidehpour, Mohammad, Zhiyi Li, and Mehdi Ganji. “Smart Cities for a Sustainable Urbanization: Illuminating the Need for Establishing Smart Urban Infrastructures.” IEEE Electrification Magazine 6, no. 2 (2018): 16–33.

Shukla, Bishnu Kant, Aakash Gupta, Sachin Gowda, and Yuvraj Srivastav. “Constructing a Greener Future: A Comprehensive Review on the Sustainable Use of Fly Ash in the Construction Industry and Beyond.” Materials Today: Proceedings 93 (2023): 257–64.

Simpeh, Eric Kwame, and John Julian Smallwood. “An Integrated Model for Predicting the Probability of Adoption of Green Building in South Africa.” Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology 18, no. 6 (2020): 1927–50.

———. “Incentive Mechanism for Promoting the Uptake of Green Building in South Africa.” Open House International 49, no. 2 (2024): 340–57.

Simpeh, Eric Kwame, John Julian Smallwood, Divine Kwaku Ahadzie, and Henry Mensah. “Analytical Taxonomy of Challenges to the Implementation of Green Building Projects in South Africa.” International Journal of Construction Management 23, no. 2 (2023): 286–96.

Sundayi, Shallyne, Vittorio Tramontin, and Claudia Loggia. “An Investigation into the Costs and Benefits of Green Building in South Africa.” IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 2015,77–82.

Thabit, Sara, Gabriela Aguinaga, Riccardo Maroso, Charlotte Mohn, Ban Edilbi, Lucy Donnelly, Antara Tandon, Pinar Caglin, Maia Smillie, and Firas Suqi. “United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat),” 2020.

Toit, Jacques du, and Claire Wagner. “Property Owners’ Uptake of Stormwater Source Controls: A Case Study of a Low-Density Upmarket Residential Estate in Pretoria, South Africa.” Urban Water Journal 19, no. 5 (2022): 538–45.

Uche, Emmanuel, and Nicholas Ngepah. “How Green-Technology, Energy-Transition and Resource Rents Influence Load Capacity Factor in South Africa.” International Journal of Sustainable Energy 43, no. 1 (2024): 2281038.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Climate Change and Africa: Addressing the Challenges. Nairobi: UNEP, 2020.

———. “Green Economy Policy Review of South Africa’s Industrial Policy Framework,” 2020.

Varghese, E. S. E. “ Designing Guidelines for Sustainable Housing: What We Learn from the Development of the Green Building Sector in South Africa.,” 2022.

Vijayan, Dhanasingh Sivalinga, Parthiban Devarajan, Arvindan Sivasuriyan, Anna Stefańska, Eugeniusz Koda, Aleksandra Jakimiuk, Magdalena Daria Vaverková, Jan Winkler, Carlos C Duarte, and Nuno D Corticos. “A State of Review on Instigating Resources and Technological Sustainable Approaches in Green Construction.” Sustainability 15, no. 8 (2023): 6751.

Windapo, Abimbola, Oluseye Olugboyega, Francesco Pomponi, Alireza Moghayedi, and Fidelis Emuze. “Causality between Challenges, Availability, and Extent of Use of Local Building Materials.” South African Journal of Science 118, no. 7–8 (2022): 1–11.

Windapo, Abimbola Olukemi, and Jack Steven Goulding. “Understanding the Gap between Green Building Practice and Legislation Requirements in South Africa.” Smart and Sustainable Built Environment 4, no. 1 (2015): 67–96.

Windapo, Abimbola Oluwakemi, and Alireza Moghayedi. “Adoption of Smart Technologies and Circular Economy Performance of Buildings.” Built Environment Project and Asset Management 10, no. 4 (2020): 585–601.

World Green Building Council. World Green Building Council. 2025.

Tackson Makandwa is a Postdoctoral Researcher under the Department of Anthropology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. He has a background in Psychology and Development Studies. His interdisciplinary PhD in Migration and Displacement focuses on the intersections between migration, maternal health, and wellbeing. His interests are in migration, religion, life in the city, gender, mental health, and reproductive health.

Maheshvari Naidu is a Full Professor in Anthropology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. She is currently the academic liaison and coordinator for international partnerships and global engagements in the School of Social Sciences. She was appointed as a six-month visiting professor at the Forum Internationale Wissenschaft at the University of Bonn in 2022/2023, where she was engaged in a project on Internationalisation in Higher Education. She has supervised a large cohort of Postgraduate students and Post-Doctoral Fellows and has graduated more than 15 Masters and 27 Doctoral students.

Makandwa, Tackson, and Maheshvari Naidu. “Greening Brick and Mortar in South Africa: A Critical Review of Green Architecture and Green Technologies.” E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences 6, no. 14 (2025): 3616 – 3642, https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.20256148

© 2025 The Author(s). Published and Maintained by Noyam Journals. This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Articles in this Issue

About Journal