Gender Disparities in High School Mathematics Achievement: Factors and Interventions
Shakespear Chiphambo 
Issue: Vol.6 No.9 Article 25 pp.2081 – 2099
DOI: https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.20256925 | Published online 28th August, 2025
© 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Gender disparities in mathematics achievement persist in high school settings, influenced by many factors, including sociocultural norms, teaching methodologies, and student self-efficacy. This paper is based on the literature review investigating the underlying factors contributing to these disparities and evaluating effective interventions that can bridge the achievement gap between genders. The study was grounded in social cognitive, social cognitive career theory and gender role socialisation theories. Content analysis was utilised to analyse data collected from various literature on gender disparities. Findings indicated that while girls often exhibit higher self-efficacy in mathematics, systemic biases and stereotype threats significantly hinder their performance. The findings of this study further indicate that a combination of individual, familial, and educational factors significantly influences gender disparities in high school mathematics achievement. Math anxiety, self-efficacy and the quality of teacher-student interactions emerged as key determinants of these disparities. Furthermore, the study identified targeted interventions, such as fostering a growth mindset and enhancing parental involvement, as effective strategies for reducing the gender gap in mathematics achievement. The study recommended implementing comprehensive educational policies and programmes that address the cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions of mathematics learning. It highlights underexplored constructs, such as stereotype threat and gender-specific affective experiences, broadening the scope of academic investigation. The study offers a systematic methodology for literature reviews while also examining context-sensitive interventions through content analysis for pattern recognition. Moreover, it also informs educational policy and practice, laying a foundation for future empirical research and promoting equitable mathematics achievement across diverse educational contexts.
Keywords: Mathematics achievement, Gender disparities, Interventions
Aboagye, Kennedy Oduro, Yan Denk Ke, and David Anim Mante. “Factors Influencing Students’ Perceived Difficulties in Studying Geometry: A Case of Konogo-Odumasi, Ghana.” Open Journal of Social Sciences 09, no. 09 (2021): 526–40. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.99038.
Al-Fayyadh, Sadeq, Ali Hussein Alek Al-Ganmi, Musaab Majid Abdulwahhab, Shaymaa Mohammed Hussein, Linda Cook, Abdulellah Al-Solais, and Mayada Sabri. “Targeting Smoking Triggers: A Nurse-Led Intervention for Tobacco Smoking Cessation.” Nurse Media Journal of Nursing 12, no. 3 (December 28, 2022): 437–51. https://doi.org/10.14710/nmjn.v12i3.47107.
Amoah, Emmanuel. “Gender and Other Significant Factors Causing Disparities in Senior High School Students’ Mathematics Performance.” Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT) 15, no. 1 (January 16, 2024): 26–33. https://doi.org/10.61841/turcomat.v15i1.14020.
Ayala Guzman, Rachel, Olivia L. Bolts, Jennifer L. Shipley, Megan Strowger, Mark A. Prince, and Abby L. Braitman. “A Cross-Sectional Examination of Race, Gender, and Intersectionality on Protective Behavioral Strategies and Alcohol Outcomes among Black and White College Students.” Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 32, no. 6 (December 2024): 682–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000712.
Bai, Haining. “Design and Application of Decision Support System for Educational Management Based on Big Data.” Journal of Electrical Systems 20, no. 6s (April 29, 2024): 1645–55. https://doi.org/10.52783/jes.3084.
Bautista-Quispe, Judith Annie, Edwin Gustavo Estrada-Araoz, Marisol Yana-Salluca, Zaida Esther Callata Gallegos, Ronald Raul Arce Coaquira, Benjamin Velazco Reyes, Jaffet Sillo Sosa, and Victor Raul Medina Alanoca. “Monitoring, Support and Inter-Learning in Teaching Performance in Basic Education of the Area of Mathematics. A Case Study in Puno (Perú).” International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research 22, no. 5 (May 30, 2023): 474–92. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.22.5.24.
Chim, Kathleen, and JoJo T. C. Lai. “A Study Protocol for a Non-Randomised Evaluation of a Growth-Based Career Construction Psychosocial Intervention for Higher Education Students.” Frontiers in Education 9 (June 18, 2024). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1328711.
Coşkun, Burçin, and Kübra Karakaya Özyer. “The Effect of Student Characteristics and Socioeconomic Status on Mathematics Achievement in Türkiye: Insights from TIMSS 2011-2019.” International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education 10, no. 3 (September 22, 2023): 454–81. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.1272517.
Davis‐Kean, Pamela E., Thurston Domina, Megan Kuhfeld, Alexa Ellis, and Elizabeth T. Gershoff. “It Matters How You Start: Early Numeracy Mastery Predicts High School Math course‐taking and College Attendance.” Infant and Child Development 31, no. 2 (March 26, 2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2281.
DiStefano, Michela, Fraulein Retanal, Jean-François Bureau, Thomas E. Hunt, Anne Lafay, Helena P. Osana, Sheri-Lynn Skwarchuk, et al. “Relations between Math Achievement, Math Anxiety, and the Quality of Parent–Child Interactions While Solving Math Problems.” Education Sciences 13, no. 3 (March 15, 2023): 307. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13030307.
Divjak, Blaženka, Barbi Svetec, Damir Horvat, and Nikola Kadoić. “Assessment Validity and Learning Analytics as Prerequisites for Ensuring Student‐centred Learning Design.” British Journal of Educational Technology 54, no. 1 (January 15, 2023): 313–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13290.
Eagly, Alice H., and Wendy Wood. “The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions versus Social Roles.” American Psychologist 54, no. 6 (June 1999): 408–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408.
Eckert, Tanya L., Brittany N. Eggleston, Narmene F. Hamsho, and Natalie L. Williams. “Assessing Children’s Perceptions of Intervention Acceptability Ratings.” Psychology in the Schools 58, no. 10 (October 29, 2021): 1962–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22564.
Esteban-Guitart, Moisés. “The Biosocial Foundation of the Early Vygotsky: Educational Psychology before the Zone of Proximal Development.” History of Psychology 21, no. 4 (November 2018): 384–401. https://doi.org/10.1037/hop0000092.
Harun, Harun, Badrun Kartowagiran, and Abdul Manaf. “Student Attitude and Mathematics Learning Success: A Meta-Analysis.” International Journal of Instruction 14, no. 4 (October 1, 2021): 209–22. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14413a.
Herawati, Mutia, Abdul Muhid, and Asep Saepul Hamdani. “Self-Efficacy, Social Support, Academic Flow, and Math Anxiety among Islamic Senior High School Students.” Psympathic : Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi 7, no. 2 (January 3, 2021): 315–26. https://doi.org/10.15575/psy.v7i2.8474.
Idris, Khairiani, Khazila Khazila, Agustina Agustina, and Lisa Lisa. “High School Students’ Attitudes toward Mathematics and Its Relation to Mathematics Learning Achievement.” Jurnal Riset Pendidikan Matematika 8, no. 1 (June 7, 2021): 33–45. https://doi.org/10.21831/jrpm.v8i1.37002.
Kezar, Adrianna, Joseph A. Kitchen, Hilary Estes, Ronald Hallett, and Rosemary Perez. “Tailoring Programs to Best Support Low-Income, First-Generation, and Racially Minoritized College Student Success.” Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 25, no. 1 (May 1, 2023): 126–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025120971580.
Khaerul Anam, Muhamad Sadli, and Hadi Wijaya. “Analysis of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Utilization for Improving Motor Skills Learning Outcomes among Elementary School Teacher Education (PGSD) Students.” DIAJAR: Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pembelajaran 3, no. 2 (April 28, 2024): 202–9. https://doi.org/10.54259/diajar.v3i2.2492.
Kiss, Allyson J., and Rose Vukovic. “Exploring Educational Engagement for Parents with Math Anxiety.” Psychology in the Schools 58, no. 2 (February 20, 2021): 364–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22451.
Lee, Glona, and Sandra D. Simpkins. “Ability Self‐concepts and Parental Support May Protect Adolescents When They Experience Low Support from Their Math Teachers.” Journal of Adolescence 88, no. 1 (April 18, 2021): 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.01.008.
Ley Davis, Luann, Fred Spooner, and Alicia Saunders. “Efficacy of Peer-Delivered Mathematical Problem-Solving Instruction to Students With Extensive Support Needs.” Exceptional Children 89, no. 1 (October 16, 2022): 101–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029221098764.
Luo, Xue, and Xu Huang. “The Effects of a Yoga Intervention on Balance and Flexibility in Female College Students during COVID-19: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” PLOS ONE 18, no. 3 (March 22, 2023): e0282260. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282260.
Ma, X, and Jiangming Xu. “The Causal Ordering of Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Achievement: A Longitudinal Panel Analysis.” Journal of Adolescence 27, no. 2 (April 23, 2004): 165–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.003.
Melo, Giselle, Stefany Correa Lima, Raquel Machado Schincaglia, Eduardo Yoshio Nakano, and Natacha Toral. “Tailored Nutritional Intervention through Digital Technology for Brazilian Adolescents.” Cadernos de Educação Tecnologia e Sociedade 16, no. 4 (March 19, 2024): 1098–1109. https://doi.org/10.14571/brajets.v16.n4.1098-1109.
Milovanović, Ilija. “Math Anxiety, Math Achievement and Math Motivation in High School Students: Gender Effects.” Croatian Journal of Education – Hrvatski Časopis Za Odgoj i Obrazovanje 22, no. 1 (April 20, 2020). https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v22i1.3372.
Mohmmed Amer Alsoqae, Aysha, and Safia Belal. “Student Academic Success Factors in Selected Nursing Collages in Saudi Arabia.” International Journal of Innovative Research in Medical Science 9, no. 06 (June 1, 2024): 317–30. https://doi.org/10.23958/ijirms/vol09-i06/1885.
Morgan, Paul L., Eric Hengyu Hu, George Farkas, Marianne M. Hillemeier, Yoonkyung Oh, and Cecelia A. Gloski. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Advanced Science and Mathematics Achievement During Elementary School.” Gifted Child Quarterly 67, no. 2 (April 8, 2023): 151–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862221128299.
Mukagiahana, Josiane, Aimable Sibomana, and Joseph Ndiritu. “Teachers Understanding of Gender Responsive Pedagogy and Its Application in Teaching Process: Case after Teacher Training Program Interventions in Rwanda.” Journal of Pedagogical Research, February 17, 2024. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202423067.
Murphy, Steve, Lena Danaia, Jacquie Tinkler, and Fiona Collins. “Parents’ Experiences of Mathematics Learning at Home during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Typology of Parental Engagement in Mathematics Education.” Educational Studies in Mathematics, April 3, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-023-10224-1.
Pomoy Española, Raymon. “Achievement Profiles in Math, Science, and English: Exploring Contextualized Sex Differences.” Jurnal Pendidikan Progresif 13, no. 1 (2023): 103–18. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v13.i1.202308.
Randall, Jennifer, and Alejandra Garcia. “Let’s Go Girls!: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tutoring and Scholarships on Primary School Girls’ Attendance and Academic Performance in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).” FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education 6, no. 3 (October 19, 2020): 19–35. https://doi.org/10.32865/fire202063222.
Retanal, Fraulein, Nichole B. Johnston, Sabrina M. Di Lonardo Burr, Andie Storozuk, Michela DiStefano, and Erin A. Maloney. “Controlling-Supportive Homework Help Partially Explains the Relation between Parents’ Math Anxiety and Children’s Math Achievement.” Education Sciences 11, no. 10 (October 11, 2021): 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11100620.
Roberts, Abigail K., and Erica D. Spangenberg. “Peer Tutors’ Views on Their Role in Motivating Learners to Learn Mathematics.” Pythagoras 41, no. 1 (September 28, 2020). https://doi.org/10.4102/pythagoras.v41i1.520.
Shirali Kharamin, Salam, and Mahboubeh Moradian. “Investigating the Effectiveness of Transactional Analysis (TA) Training on the Mental Health of Female Middle School Students.” KMAN Counseling and Psychology Nexus 1, no. 1 (2023): 183–88. https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.psychnexus.1.1.21.
Shomi Anand, Kirti Hemwani, Sonu Ajmani, Sai Sailesh Kumar Goothy, and Anita Choudhary. “Assessment of Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Cognitive Parameters in Medical Students: A Pilot Study.” Asian Journal of Medical Sciences 14, no. 2 (February 1, 2023): 214–17. https://doi.org/10.3126/ajms.v14i2.49269.
Skaalvik, Einar M., Roger A. Federici, and Robert M. Klassen. “Mathematics Achievement and Self-Efficacy: Relations with Motivation for Mathematics.” International Journal of Educational Research 72 (2015): 129–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2015.06.008.
Soo, Yue Yin, Yuet Yen Wong, Siew Chin Ong, and Guat See Ooi. “Educators’ Roles and Challenges in Supporting Tertiary Education Students’ Mental Health: A Qualitative Study in Malaysia.” The Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice 18, no. 6 (November 10, 2023): 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMHTEP-02-2023-0013.
Sparks, David M., and Kathryn Pole. “‘Do We Teach Subjects or Students?’ Analyzing Science and Mathematics Teacher Conversations about Issues of Equity in the Classroom.” School Science and Mathematics 119, no. 7 (November 25, 2019): 405–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12361.
Tsukahara, Saki, Satoshi Yamaguchi, Futaba Igarashi, Reiko Uruma, Naomi Ikuina, Kaori Iwakura, Keisuke Koizumi, and Yasunori Sato. “Association of EHealth Literacy With Lifestyle Behaviors in University Students: Questionnaire-Based Cross-Sectional Study.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 22, no. 6 (June 24, 2020): e18155. https://doi.org/10.2196/18155.
Uhlich, Maximiliane, Zoë D. Peterson, Yi Li, Andrew Brown, Jin Han, and Joseph A. D. McBride. “Different Components of Sexual Narcissism Are Differentially Associated With Specific Sexual Aggression Strategies: An Exploratory Study Among Male and Female College Students.” International Journal of Sexual Health 36, no. 1 (January 2, 2024): 111–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2024.2311142.
Vukovic, Rose K., Michael J. Kieffer, Sean P. Bailey, and Rachel R. Harari. “Mathematics Anxiety in Young Children: Concurrent and Longitudinal Associations with Mathematical Performance.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 38, no. 1 (January 2013): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.09.001.
Wang, Liang, Xiangyu Zhou, Wei Wu, and Aihua Chen. “Moderating Effect of Gender and Engineering Identity on the Association between Interpersonal Relationships and Mental Health of Female Engineering Students.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 16 (August 21, 2022): 10425. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191610425.
Wang, Zhe, Kaili Rimfeld, Nicholas Shakeshaft, Kerry Schofield, and Margherita Malanchini. “The Longitudinal Role of Mathematics Anxiety in Mathematics Development: Issues of Gender Differences and Domain‐specificity.” Journal of Adolescence 80, no. 1 (April 18, 2020): 220–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.03.003.
Weber, Joram, and Claudio R. Nigg. “Promoting Fruit and Vegetable Consumption during the COVID-19 Pandemic – SportStudisMoveYou (SSMY): A Randomized Controlled Trial.” AIMS Public Health 9, no. 4 (2022): 690–702. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022048.
Yang, Yao, Yukiko Maeda, and Marcia Gentry. “The Relationship between Mathematics Self-Efficacy and Mathematics Achievement: Multilevel Analysis with NAEP 2019.” Large-Scale Assessments in Education 12, no. 1 (May 10, 2024): 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-024-00204-z.
Yerdelen-Damar, Sevda, Büşra Aksöz, Sevil Sezer, Nil Arabaci, and Fatma Arikan. “Investigating the Interrelationships among Science and Mathematics Achievement, Attitudes towards STEM, and Gender.” Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 10, no. 2 (June 5, 2021): 342–57. https://doi.org/10.14686/buefad.778281.
Zhang, Yuhuan, Chengcheng Cui, Yahan He, and Lidong Wang. “Does Private Supplementary Tutoring Matter in Chinese Students’ Learning of Mathematics: A Longitudinal Study.” ZDM – Mathematics Education 54, no. 3 (June 17, 2022): 737–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-022-01346-6.
Professor Shakespear Maliketi Chiphambo (Ph.D.,M.Ed., B.Ed Honours, B.Ed., PGDip. Ed., Dip.Ed) is a Mathematics Education Lecturer at Walter Sisulu University (WSU). He has over 30 research publications, including research and book chapters in peer-reviewed journals and edited books. Attended and presented at both international and national conferences. He has been serving as a research paper reviewer for the South African International Conference in Education (SAICEd), The 11th European Conference on Education, Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (EJMSTE), National Research Foundation (NRF), Pythagoras journal, Walter Sisulu University, Journal of Education (Journal of the SA Education Research Association (SAERA)), The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences (ACSS2024) (23 May -27 May 2024) organised by International Academic Forum (IAFOR) was rated a senior peer reviewer for ACSS2024 and African Evaluation journal. He is interested in education research focusing on teaching and learning geometry, measurement and early childhood education.
Chiphambo, Shakespear. “Gender Disparities in High School Mathematics Achievement: Factors and Interventions,” E-Journal of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences 6, no. 9 (2025): 2081 – 2099, https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.20256925.
© 2025 The Author(s). Published and Maintained by Noyam Journals. This is an open access article under the CCBY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
